Goals in France
English kings had claimed parts of the European mainland ever since William, Duke of Normandy, won the throne in 1066, but the size and legitimacy of these holdings varied through struggles with the competing French crown. Not only did Henry consider it his legal right, indeed duty, to recover these lands, he also believed honestly and utterly in his right to the rival throne, as first claimed, albeit cynically, by Edward III. At every stage of his French campaigns Henry went to great lengths to be seen as acting legally and royally.
War Begins
Henry was able to benefit from the situation in France: the King, Charles VI, was mad and the French nobility had split into two warring camps: the Armagnacs formed round Charles' son, and the Burgundians, formed around John, Duke of Burgundy. As a prince Henry had supported the Burgundian faction, but as king he played the two against each other simply to claim he'd tried to negotiate. In June 1415 Henry broke talks off and on August 11 began what became known as the Agincourt Campaign.
The Agincourt Campaign: Henry V's Finest Hour?
Henry's first target was the port of Harfleur, a French naval base and potential supply point for the English armies. It fell, but only after a protracted siege which saw Henry's army reduced in numbers and affected by illness. With winter approaching, Henry decided to march his force overland to Calais despite being opposed by his commanders. They felt the scheme was too risky, as a major French force was gathering to meet their weakened troops. Indeed, at Agincourt on October 25th an army of both French factions blocked the English and forced them to battle.
The French should have crushed the English, but a combination of deep mud, social convention and French mistakes led to an overwhelming English victory. Henry completed his march to Calais, where he was greeted like a hero. In military terms, victory at Agincourt simply allowed Henry to escape catastrophe and deterred the French from further pitched battles, but politically the impact was enormous. The English further united round their conquering king, (who was now portrayed as a brave, chivalric idol), Henry became one of the most famous men in Europe and the French factions splintered again in shock.
The Conquest of Normandy
Having obtained vague promises of help from John the Fearless in 1416, Henry returned to France in July 1417 with a clear objective: the conquest of Normandy. While Henry's reputation as a formidable military leader is based on a battle – Agincourt – where his enemies contributed more than he, the Normandy campaign showed Henry to be every bit as great as his legend. Starting in July 1417, Henry maintained his army in France consistently for three years, methodically besieging towns and castles and installing new garrisons. This was the age before standing armies, when maintaining any large force required a great deal of resources and Henry kept his army functioning via greatly sophisticated systems of supply and command. Admittedly, warring between the French factions meant little national opposition was organised and Henry was able to keep resistance relatively local but it was nonetheless a supreme achievement and by June 1419 Henry controlled the vast majority of Normandy.
Equally notable are the tactics Henry used. This wasn't a plundering chevauchée as favoured by previous English kings, but a determined attempt to bring Normandy under permanent control. Henry was acting as rightful king and allowing those who accepted him to keep their land. There was still brutality – he destroyed those who opposed him and grew increasingly violent – but it was originally far more controlled, magnanimous and answerable to law than before.
The War for France
With Normandy under control Henry advanced further into France; others had also been active: on May 29th, 1418, John the Fearless had captured Paris, slaughtered the Armagnac garrison and taken command of Charles VI and his court. Negotiations had continued between the three sides throughout this period, but the Armagnacs and Burgundians grew close again in the summer of 1419. A united France would have threatened Henry V's success, but even in the face of continued English conquest – Henry was so close to Paris the court fled to Troyes - the French could not overcome their mutual hatred and, at a meeting of the Dauphin and John the Fearless on September 10th 1419 John was assassinated. Reeling, the Burgundians reopened negotiations with Henry.
Victory: Henry V as the Heir to France
By Christmas an agreement was in place and on 21st May 1420 the Treaty of Troyes signed. Charles VI remained King of France, but Henry became his heir, married his daughter Katherine and acted as de facto ruler of France. Charles' son, the Dauphin Charles, was barred from the throne and it was Henry's line who would follow, his heir holding two distinct crowns: England and France. On June 2nd Henry married and on December 1st 1420 he entered Paris. Unsurprisingly, the Armagnacs rejected the treaty.
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